english education

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

The Present Participle

The present participle of most verbs has the form base+ing and is used in the following ways:

a.      as part of the continuous form of a verb
(See continuous tenses in VERB TENSES)

Example:

• I am working
• he was singing
• they have been walking

b.      after verbs of movement/position in the pattern: verb + present participle

Example

• She went shopping
• He lay looking up at the clouds
• She came running towards me

This construction is particularly useful with the verb 'to go', as in these common expressions:

to go shopping to go ski-ing to go fishing to go surfing

to go walking to go swimming to go running to go dancing

c.       after verbs of perception in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle

Example

• I heard someone singing.
• He saw his friend walking along the road.
• I can smell something burning!

NOTE: There is a difference in meaning when such a sentence contains a zero-infinitive rather than a participle. The infinitive refers to a complete action, but the participle refers to an incomplete action, or part of an action.

Compare:

• I heard Joanna singing (= she had started before I heard her, and probably went on afterwards)
• I heard Joanna sing (= I heard her complete performance)

d.      as an adjective

Examples

amazing, worrying, exciting, boring.

• It was an amazing film.
• It's a bit worrying when the police stop you
• Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm.
• Racing cars can go as fast as 400kph.
• He was trapped inside the burning house.
• Many of his paintings depict the setting sun.

e.       with the verbs spend and waste, in the pattern:
verb + time/money expression + present participle

Example

• My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work.
• Don't waste time playing computer games!
• They've spent the whole day shopping.

f.       with the verbs catch and find, in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle:

With catch, the participle always refers to an action which causes annoyance or anger:

• If I catch you stealing my apples again, there'll be trouble!
• Don't let him catch you reading his letters.

This is not the case with find, which is unemotional:

• We found some money lying on the ground.
• They found their mother sitting in the garden.

g.      to replace a sentence or part of a sentence:

When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we can use a present participle to describe one of them:

• They went out into the snow. They laughed as they went. They went laughing out into the snow.
• He whistled to himself. He walked down the road. Whistling to himself, he walked down the road.

When one action follows very quickly after another done by the same person or thing, we can express the first action with a present participle:

• He put on his coat and left the house. Putting on his coat, he left the house.
• She dropped the gun and put her hands in the air. Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air.

The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting as, since, because, and it explains the cause or reason for an action:

• Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge.
  (= because he felt hungry...)
• Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes.
• Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat.

Verb Tenses: Future with 'Going to'

FUTURE WITH GOING TO

1.     Future with Going to - form

This form is composed of three elements: the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + going to + the infinitive of the main verb:

Subject	'to be'	going to	infinitive
She	is	going to	leave

2.     Future with Going to – function

The use of 'going to' to refer to future events suggests a very strong association with the present. The time is not important - it is later than now, but the attitude is that the event depends on a present situation, that we know about. So it is used:

• to refer to our plans and intentions:
  We're going to move to London next year. (= the plan is in our minds now.)
• to make predictions based on present evidence:
  Look at those clouds - it's going to pour with rain! (= It's clear from what I can see now.)

Note: In everyday speech, 'going to' is often shortened to 'gonna', especially in American English.

Plans and intentions:

• Is Freddy going to buy a new car soon?
• Are John and Pam going to visit Milan when they are in Italy?
• I think Nigel and Mary are going to have a party next week.

Predictions based on present evidence:

• There's going to be a terrible accident!
• He's going to be a brilliant politician.
• I'm going to have terrible indigestion.

NOTE: It is unusual to say 'I'm going to go to...'
Instead, we use 'going to' + a place or event:

Examples

• We are going to the beach tomorrow.
• She is going to the ballet tonight.
• Are you going to the party tomorrow night?

THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS

Forming the possessive

The possessive form is used with nouns referring to people, groups of people, countries, and animals. 'Belonging to' or 'ownership' is one of the relationships it expresses:

• John owns a car. ('John' is the possessor or owner)
• It is John's car.

• America has some gold reserves. ('America' is the owner)
• They are America's gold reserves.

It can also express other relationships, for example:

Where someone works or studies or spends time:

• John goes to this school. This is John's school.
• John sleeps in this room. This is John's room.

A family relationship:

• John's mother
• The Queen's daughter

Qualities:

• John's patience.
• The politician's hypocrisy.

Form

To form the possessive, add’s ('apostrophe -s') to the noun. If the noun is plural, or already ends in -s, just add:' (an apostrophe).

For names ending in -s:

In speaking we add the sound /z/ to the name, but in writing it is possible to use either 's or just '. The’s form is more common. e.g. Thomas's book, James's shop.

Examples

• The car of John = John's car.
• The room of the girls = The girls' room.
• Clothes for men = Men's clothes.
• The sister of Charles = Charles' sister.
• The boat of the sailors = The sailors' boat.

There are also some fixed expressions where the possessive form is used:

Time expressions	Other expressions
a day's work	For God's sake!
a fortnight's holiday	a pound's worth of apples.
a month's pay	the water's edge
today's newspaper	a stone's throw away (= very near)
in a year's time	at death's door (= very ill)
	in my mind's eye (= in my imagination)

The possessive is also used to refer to shops, restaurants, churches and colleges, using the name or job title of the owner.

Examples:

the grocer's	the doctor's	the vet's
the newsagent's	the chemist's	Smith's
the dentist's	Tommy Tucker's	Luigi's
Saint Mary's	Saint James's

1. Shall we go to Luigi's for lunch?
2. I've got an appointment at the dentist's at eleven o'clock.
3. Is Saint Mary's an all-girls school?

TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

 

1. Form

In a Type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:

'IF' CLAUSE	MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past If it rained If you went to bed earlier	Present conditional you would get wet you wouldn't be so tired.

Present conditional, form

The present conditional of any verb is composed of two parts - the modal auxiliary would + the infinitive of the main verb (without 'to'.)

Subject   +	would  +	infinitive without to
She	would	learn

Affirmative
I	would	go
Negative
I	wouldn't	ask
Interrogative
Would	she	come?
Interrogative negative
Wouldn't	they	accept?

Would: Contractions of would

In spoken English, would is contracted to’d.

I'd	We'd
you'd	you'd
he'd, she'd	they'd

The negative contraction = wouldn't.

Example: to accept, Present conditional

 

 

 

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I would accept	I wouldn't accept	Would I accept?
You would accept	You wouldn't accept	Would you accept?
He would accept	She wouldn't accept	Would he accept?
We would accept	We wouldn't accept	Would we accept?
You would accept	You wouldn't accept	Would you accept?
They would accept	They wouldn't accept	Would they accept?

 

2. Function

In these sentences, the time is now or any time, and the situation is unreal. They are not based on fact, and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result. The use of the past tense after 'if' indicates unreality. We can nearly always add a phrase starting with "but", that expresses the real situation:

• If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park (...but it is bad, so we can't go)
• If I was the Queen of England, I would give everyone �100. (...but I'm not, so I won't)

 

Examples of use:

1. To make a statement about something that is not real at present, but is possible:
   I would visit her if I had time. (= I haven't got time but I might have some time)
2. To make a statement about a situation that is not real now and never could be real:
   If I were you, I'd give up smoking (but I could never be you)

 

Examples:

a. If I was a plant, I would love the rain.
b. If you really loved me, you would buy me a diamond ring.
c. If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her.
d. You wouldn't need to read this if you understood English grammar.
e. Would he go to the concert if I gave him a ticket?
f. They wouldn't invite her if they didn't like her
g. We would be able to buy a larger house if we had more money

NOTE: It is correct and very common, to say "If I were" instead of "If I was"

RELATIVE CLAUSES

See also Pronouns

There are two different types of relative clause:

1. A "defining" or identifying clause, which tells us which person or thing we are talking about. This kind of clause could often be information included in brackets (...)
2. A "non-defining" or non-essential clause, which gives us more information about the person or thing we are talking about.

Examples

• The farmer (his name was Fred) sold us some potatoes. The farmer, whose name was Fred, sold us some potatoes.

It is important to see the difference between the two types of clause, as it affects:

• The choice of pronoun used to introduce the clause,
• The punctuation - you must use commas with a non-defining clause.

How to form relative clauses

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

As the name suggests, these clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing we are talking about. Obviously, this is only necessary if there is more than one person or thing involved.

Example

• Dogs that like cats are very unusual.

In this sentence we understand that there are many dogs, but it is clear that we are only talking about the ones that like cats.

Punctuation

• Commas are not used in defining relative clauses.

Relative pronouns

The following relative pronouns are used in defining relative clauses:

	Person	Thing	Place	Time	Reason
Subject	who/that	which/that
Object	who/whom/that/	which/that/	where	when	why
Possessive	whose	whose

Notes:

1. The relative pronoun stands in place of a noun.

This noun usually appears earlier in the sentence:

The woman	who/that	spoke at the meeting	was very knowledgeable.
Noun, subject of main clause	relative pronoun referring to 'the woman', subject of 'spoke'	verb + rest of relative clause	verb + rest of main clause

2. Who, whom and which can be replaced by that. This is very common in spoken English.
3. The relative pronoun can be omitted when it is the object of the clause

The woman	that	the man loved	was living in New York.
Noun, subject of main clause	relative pronoun, referring to 'the woman', object of 'loved'	verb + rest of relative clause	verb + rest of main clause.

(You can usually decide whether a relative pronoun is an object because it is normally followed by another subject + verb.)

4. Whose is used for things as well as for people.

Examples

• The man whose car was stolen.
• A tree whose leaves have fallen.

5. Whom is very formal and is only used in written English. You can use who/that, or omit the pronoun completely :

• The doctor whom/who/that/ I was hoping to see wasn't on duty.

6. That normally follows words like something, anything, everything, nothing, all, and superlatives.

Examples

• There's something that you should know.
• It was the best film that I've ever seen.

• A clown is someone who makes you laugh.
• An elephant is an animal that lives in hot countries.
• The plums that were in the fridge were delicious. I have eaten them.
• Where are the plums (that) I put in the fridge?
• Has anyone seen the book I was reading?
• Nothing that anyone does can replace my lost bag.
• Let's go to a country where the sun always shines.
• They live in the house whose roof is full of holes.

WHERE TO PUT THE PREPOSTITION IN A RELATIVE CLAUSE

WHERE TO PUT THE PREPOSTITION IN A RELATIVE CLAUSE

There are often prepositions in relative clauses, and the relative pronoun is the object of the preposition. This means that the preposition can sometimes be omitted.

The preposition is normally placed at the end of the relative clause:

• Is that the man (who) you arrived with?
• Do you know the girl (that) John is talking to?

In formal or written English, the preposition is often placed before the relative pronoun, and in this case the pronoun cannot be omitted:

• The person with whom he is negotiating is the Chairman of a large company.
• It is a society to which many important people belong.

However, this is unusual in spoken English.

Examples

• The jungle the tribe lived in was full of strange and unusual animals.
• He liked the people that he lived with.
• The tree under which they had their picnic was the largest and oldest in the park.
• To the east of the city was a lake that many people went to on the weekend.
• It was the river in which the children preferred to swim.

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

The information in these clauses is not essential. It tells us more about someone or something, but it does not help us to identify them or it.

Compare:

• Dogs that like cats are very unusual. (This tells us which dogs we are talking about).
• Gorillas, which are large and orignate in Africa, can sometimes be found in zoos. (This gives us some extra information about gorillas - we are talking about all gorillas, not just one type or group).
• John's mother, who lives in Scotland, has 6 grandchildren. (We know who John's mother is, and he only has one. The important information is the number of grandchildren, but the fact that she lives in Scotland might be followed with the words "by the way" - it is additional information).

Punctuation

Non-defining relative clauses are always separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. The commas have a similar function to brackets:

• My friend John has just written a best-selling novel. (He went to the same school as me)
• My friend John, who went to the same school as me, has just written a best-selling novel.

Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses

	Person	Thing	Place
Subject	who	which
Object	who/whom	which	where
Possessive	whose

Notes

• In non-defining clauses, you cannot use 'that' instead of who, whom or which.
• You cannot leave out the relative pronoun, even when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause:
• He gave me the letter, which was in a blue envelope.
• He gave me the letter, which I read immediately
• The preposition in these clauses can go at the end of the clause, e.g.
• This is Stratford-on-Avon, which you have all heard about.

This pattern is often used in spoken English, but in written or formal English you can also put the preposition before the pronoun: e.g. Stratford-on-Avon, about which many people have written is Shakespeare's birthplace.

• Non-defining clauses can be introduced by expressions like all of, many of + relative pronoun:

	Person	Thing
all of	+ whom	+ which
any of	+ whom	+ which
(a) few of	+ whom	+ which
both of	+ whom	+ which
each of	+ whom	+ which
either of	+ whom	+ which
half of	+ whom	+ which
many of	+ whom	+ which
most of	+ whom	+ which
much of	+ whom	+ which
none of	+ whom	+ which
one of	+ whom	+ which
two of etc...	+ whom	+ which

Examples

• There were a lot of people at the party, many of whom I had known for years.
• He was carrying his belongings, many of which were broken.
• The relative pronoun which at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause, can refer to all the information contained in the previous part of the sentence, rather than to just one word.
• Chris did really well in his exams, which was a big surprise. (= the fact that he did well in his exams was a big surprise).
• A socialist and a conservative agreed on the new law, which is most unusual. (= the fact that they agreed is unusual).

Examples

• My grandmother, who is dead now, came from the North of England.
• I spoke to Fred, who explained the problem.
• The old man looked at the tree, under which he had often sat.
• We stopped at the museum, which we'd never been into.
• She's studying maths, which many people hate.
• I've just met Susan, whose husband works in London.
• He had thousands of books, most of which he had read.

THE GERUND

THE GERUND

This looks exactly the same as a present participle, and for this reason it is now common to call both forms 'the -ing form'. However it is useful to understand the difference between the two. The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so it can be used:

a. as the subject of the sentence:

• Eating people is wrong.
• Hunting tigers is dangerous.
• Flying makes me nervous.

b. as the complement of the verb 'to be':

• One of his duties is attending meetings.
• The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund.
• One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed.

c. after prepositions. The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition:

• Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
• She is good at painting.
• They're keen on windsurfing.
• She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road.
• We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.
• My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary.

This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition, e.g. in spite of, there's no point in..:

• There's no point in waiting.
• In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time.

d. after a number of 'phrasal verbs' which are composed of a verb + preposition/adverb

Example:
to look forward to, to give up, to be for/against, to take to, to put off, to keep on:

• I look forward to hearing from you soon. (at the end of a letter)
• When are you going to give up smoking?
• She always puts off going to the dentist.
• He kept on asking for money.

NOTE: There are some phrasal verbs and other expressions that include the word 'to' as a preposition, not as part of a to-infinitive: - to look forward to, to take to, to be accustomed to, to be used to. It is important to recognise that 'to' is a preposition in these cases, as it must be followed by a gerund:

• We are looking forward to seeing you.
• I am used to waiting for buses.
• She didn't really take to studying English.

It is possible to check whether 'to� is a preposition or part of a to-infinitive: if you can put a noun or the pronoun 'it' after it, then it is a preposition and must be followed by a gerund:

• I am accustomed to it (the cold).
• I am accustomed to being cold.

e. in compound nouns

Example:

• a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird-watching, train-spotting

It is clear that the meaning is that of a noun, not of a continuous verb.

Example:

• the pool is not swimming, it is a pool for swimming in.

f. after the expressions:

can't help, can't stand, it's no use/good, and the adjective worth:

• She couldn't help falling in love with him.
• I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.
• It's no use/good trying to escape.
• It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train.

GERUND OR INFINITIVE?

Part B: GERUND OR INFINITIVE?

B. Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning:
Verbs marked with an asterisk* can also be followed by a that-clause.

come forget* go on

mean* regret* remember*

stop try

Come:

Come + gerund is like other verbs of movement followed by the gerund, and means that the subject is doing something as they move: She came running across the field. Come + to-infinitive means that something happens or develops, perhaps outside the subject's control: At first I thought he was crazy, but I've come to appreciate his sense of humour. How did you come to be outside the wrong house? This word has come to mean something quite different.

Forget, regret and remember:

When these verbs are followed by a gerund, the gerund refers to an action that happened earlier: I remember locking the door (= I remember now, I locked the door earlier) He regretted speaking so rudely. (= he regretted at some time in the past, he had spoken rudely at some earlier time in the past.) Forget is frequently used with 'never' in the simple future form: I'll never forget meeting my boss for the first time. When these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive, the infinitive refers to an action happening at the same time, or later: I remembered to lock the door (= I thought about it, then I did it.) Don't forget to buy some eggs! (= Please think about it and then do it.) We regret to announce the late arrival of the 12.45 from Paddington. (= We feel sorry before we tell you this bad news.)

Go on:

Go on + gerund means to continue with an action: He went on speaking for two hours. I can't go on working like this - I'm exhausted. Go on + to-infinitive means to do the next action, which is often the next stage in a process: After introducing her proposal, she went on to explain the benefits for the company. John Smith worked in local government for five years, then went on to become a Member of Parliament.

Mean:

Mean + gerund expresses what the result of an action will be, or what will be necessary: If you take that job in London it will mean travelling for two hours every day. We could take the ferry to France, but that will mean spending a night in a hotel. Mean + to-infinitive expresses an intention or a plan: Did you mean to dial this number? I mean to finish this job by the end of the week! Sorry - I didn't mean to hurt you.

Stop:

Stop + gerund means to finish an action in progress: I stopped working for them because the wages were so low. Stop tickling me! Stop + to-infinitive means to interrupt an activity in order to do something else, so the infinitive is used to express a purpose: I stopped to have lunch. (= I was working, or travelling, and I interrupted what I was doing in order to eat.) It's difficult to concentrate on what you are doing if you have to stop to answer the phone every five minutes.

Try:

Try + gerund means to experiment with an action that might be a solution to your problem. If you have problems sleeping, you could try doing some yoga before you go to bed, or you could try drinking some warm milk. 'I can't get in touch with Carl.' 'Have you tried e-mailing him?' Try + to-infinitive means to make an effort to do something. It may be something very difficult or even impossible: The surgeons tried to save his life but he died on the operating table. We'll try to phone at 6 o'clock, but it might be hard to find a public telephone. People have to try to live together in harmony.

GERUND OR INFINITIVE?

GERUND OR INFINITIVE?

The two groups of verbs below can be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. Usually this has no effect on the meaning, but with some verbs there is a clear difference in meaning. Verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause.

Example: to prefer

I prefer to live in an apartment.
I prefer living in an apartment.

A. Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning:

allow attempt begin bother cease continue

deserve fear* hate* intend* like love

neglect omit permit prefer* recommend* start

Notes:

1. Allow is used in these two patterns:

a. Allow + object + to-infinitive:

• Her parents allowed her to go to the party.

b. Allow + gerund:

• Her parents don't allow smoking in the house.

2. Deserve + gerund is not very common, but is mainly used with passive constructions or where there is a passive meaning:

• Your proposals deserve being considered in detail.
• These ideas deserve discussing. (= to be discussed).

3. The verbs hate, love, like, prefer are usually followed by a gerund when the meaning is general, and by a to-infinitive when they refer to a particular time or situation. You must always use the to-infinitive with the expressions 'would love to', 'would hate to', etc.

Compare:

• I hate to tell you, but Uncle Jim is coming this weekend.
• I hate looking after elderly relatives!
• I love dancing.
• I would love to dance with you.

The Gerund and the Present Participle: 'ING' Form

INTRODUCTION

The '-ing' form of the verb may be a present participle or a gerund.

The form is identical, the difference is in the function, or the job the word does in the sentence.

The present participle:

This is most commonly used:

• as part of the continuous form of a verb,
  he is painting; she has been waiting

• after verbs of movement/position in the pattern:
  verb + present participle,
  She sat looking at the sea

• after verbs of perception in the pattern:
  verb + object + present participle,
  We saw him swimming

• as an adjective, e.g. amazing, worrying, exciting, boring

The gerund:

This always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so it can be used:

• as the subject of the sentence:
  Eating people is wrong.

• after prepositions:
  Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
  She is good at painting

• after certain verbs,
  e.g. like, hate, admit, imagine

• in compound nouns,
  e.g. a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird-watching, train-spotting

VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND

VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND

The gerund is used after certain verbs.

Example

miss: I miss living in England.

The most important of these verbs are shown below.
Those marked * can also be followed by a that-clause

Example:

VERB	GERUND
She admitted...	breaking the window
	THAT-CLAUSE
She admitted...	that she had broken the window.

acknowledge,* admit,* anticipate,* appreciate,* avoid, celebrate, consider, contemplate, defer, delay, deny,* detest, dislike, dread, enjoy, entail, escape, excuse, fancy (=imagine)*, finish, forgive, imagine,* involve,

keep, loathe, mean,(=have as result)* mention,* mind, miss, pardon, postpone, prevent, propose,* recall,* recollect,* remember, report,* resent, resist, risk, save (=prevent the wasted effort) stop, suggest,* understand,*

Notes:

Appreciate is followed by a possessive adjective and the gerund when the gerund does not refer to the subject.

Compare :

• I appreciate having some time off work. (I'm having the time...)
• I appreciate your giving me some time off work. (You're giving me the time...)

Excuse, forgive, pardon can be followed by an object and the gerund or for + object and the gerund (both common in spoken English), or a possessive adjective + gerund (more formal and less likely to be said):

• Excuse me interrupting.
• Excuse me for interrupting.
• Excuse my interrupting.

Suggest can be used in a number of ways, but BE CAREFUL.

It is important not to confuse these patterns:

suggest/suggested (+ possessive adjective) + gerund:

• He suggests going to Glastonbury
• He suggested going to Glastonbury
• He suggested/suggests my going to Glastonbury

suggest/suggested + that-clause (where both that and should may be omitted):

• He suggests that I should go to New York
• He suggested that I should go to New York
• He suggested/suggests I should go to New York
• He suggested/suggests I go to New York
• He suggested I went to New York.

suggest/suggested + question word + infinitive:

• He suggested where to go.

Propose is followed by the gerund when it means 'suggest':

• John proposed going to the debate
• but by the infinitive when it means 'intend':
  The Government proposes bringing in new laws..

Stop can be followed by a gerund or infinitive, but there is a change of meaning - see GERUND / INFINITIVE? section.

Dread is followed by the infinitive when used with 'think', in the expression 'I dread to think':

• I dread to think what she'll do next.

Prevent is followed

EITHER by a possessive adjective + gerund:

• You can't prevent my leaving.

OR by an object + from + gerund:

• You can't prevent me from leaving.

Examples

• Normally, a girl wouldn't think of marrying a man she did not love.
• Most people don't like receiving bad news.
• We can't risk getting wet - we haven't got any dry clothes.
• If you take that job it will mean getting home late every night.
• I can't imagine living in that big house.
• If you buy some petrol now, it will save you stopping on the way to London.
• She couldn't resist eating the plum she found in the fridge.
• They decided to postpone painting the house until the weather improved.